Exploring the Relationship between Skeletal Mass and Total Body Mass in Birds

Total body mass (TBM) is known to be related to a number of different osteological features in vertebrates, including limb element measurements and total skeletal mass. The relationship between skeletal mass and TBM in birds has been suggested as a way of estimating the latter in cases where only the skeleton is known (e.g., fossils). This relationship has thus also been applied to other extinct vertebrates, including the non-avian pterosaurs, while other studies have used additional skeletal correlates found in modern birds to estimate TBM. However, most previous studies have used TBM compiled from the literature rather than from direct measurements, producing values from population averages rather than from individuals. Here, we report a new dataset of 487 extant birds encompassing 79 species that have skeletal mass and TBM recorded at the time of collection or preparation. We combine both historical and new data for analyses with phylogenetic control and find a similar and well-correlated relationship between skeletal mass and TBM. Thus, we confirm that TBM and skeletal mass are accurate proxies for estimating one another. We also look at other factors that may have an effect on avian body mass, including sex, ontogenetic stage, and flight mode. While data are well-correlated in all cases, phylogeny is a major control on TBM in birds strongly suggesting that this relationship is not appropriate for estimating the total mass of taxa outside of crown birds, Neornithes (e.g., non-avian dinosaurs, pterosaurs). Data also reveal large variability in both bird skeletal and TBM within single species; caution should thus be applied when using published mass to test direct correlations with skeletal mass and bone lengths.     

Microbiological Characterization of Wet Wheat Distillers'' Grain, with Focus on Isolation of Lactobacilli with Potential as Probiotics

Wet wheat distillers' grain (WWDG), a residue from ethanol fermentation, was examined from a microbiological perspective. After storage, WWDG was characterized by a high content of lactobacilli, nondetectable levels of other bacteria, occasional occurrence of yeasts, and a pH of about 3.6 and contained a mixture of lactic acid, acetic acid, and ethanol. The composition of lactobacilli in WWDG was simple, including primarily the species Lactobacillus amylolyticus, Lactobacillus panis, and Lactobacillus pontis, as determined by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Since the use of WWDG as pig feed has indicated a health-promoting function, some relevant characteristics of three strains of each of these species were examined together with basal physiological parameters, such as carbohydrate utilization and growth temperature. Seven of the strains were isolated from WWDG, and two strains from pig feces were included for comparison. It was clear that all three species could grow at temperatures of 45 to 50°C, with L. amylolyticus being able to grow at temperatures as high as 54°C. This finding could be the explanation for the simple microflora of WWDG, where a low pH together with a high temperature during storage would select for these organisms. Some strains of L. panis and L. pontis showed prolonged survival at pH 2.5 in synthetic stomach juice and good growth in the presence of porcine bile salt. In addition, members of all three species were able to bind to immobilized mucus material in vitro. Especially the isolates from pig feces but, interestingly, some isolates from WWDG as well possessed properties that might be of importance for colonization of the gastrointestinal tracts of pigs.     

Do Arctic waders use adaptive wind drift?

We analysed five data sets of flight directions of migrating arctic waders in relation to winds, recorded by tracking radar and optical range finder, in order to find out if these birds compensate for wind drift, or allow themselves to be drifted by winds. Our purpose was to investigate whether arctic waders use adaptive wind drift strategies or not. The data sets were collected in Siberia (two sets) and Canada during post-breeding (autumn) migration, and in Mauritania and South Sweden during pre-breeding (spring) migration. Both significant drift and compensation effects were found in three of the data sets, Canada, Mauritania and South Sweden. Almost no compensation was found in birds departing in easterly directions from the Siberian tundra (complete drift), while no drift effect was found in birds departing in westerly directions (complete compensation). There were indications that at least some populations of waders may use an adaptive drift strategy consisting of drift at high altitude and/or in high wind speed combined with compensation at low altitude and/or in lower wind speeds, but support for this idea was rather weak and not consistent. Our results were instead more in accordance with the adaptive drift theory that predicts initial drift during the migratory journey, followed by compensation during later stages as the birds are approaching their destinations. Such a strategy implies that arctic waders, at least adult birds, have the capacity of true navigation. A comparison with earlier studies of migrating arctic waders from different parts of the world show that all results so far may be interpreted in accordance with this general adaptive drift strategy. An element of non-adaptive drift can, however, not be completely ruled out.     

Mitigation of acidified salmon rivers – effects of liming on young brown trout Salmo trutta

In southern Norway, 22 acidified rivers supporting anadromous salmonids were mitigated with lime to improve water quality and restore fish populations. In 13 of these rivers, effects on Salmo trutta and Salmo salar densities were monitored over 10–12 years, grouped into age 0 and age ≥ 1 year fish. These rivers had a mean annual discharge of between 4·9 and 85·5 m³ s^?1, and six of them were regulated for hydro‐power production. Salmo salar were lost in six of these rivers prior to liming, and highly reduced in the remaining seven rivers. Post‐liming, S. salar became re‐established in all six rivers with lost populations, and recovered in the seven other rivers. Salmo trutta occurred in all 13 study rivers prior to liming. Despite the improved water quality, both age 0 and age ≥ 1 year S. trutta densities decreased as S. salar density increased, with an average reduction of >50% after 10 years of liming. For age 0 year S. trutta this effect was less strong in rivers where S. salar were present prior to liming. In contrast, densities of S. trutta increased in unlimed streams above the anadromous stretches in two of the rivers following improved water quality due to natural recovery. Density increases of both age 0 and age ≥ 1 year S. salar showed a positive effect of river discharge. The results suggest that the decline in S. trutta density after liming is related to interspecific resource competition due to the recovery of S. salar. Thus, improved water quality through liming may not only sustain susceptible species, but can have a negative effect on species that are more tolerant prior to the treatment, such as S. trutta.     

Neutral processes forming large clones during colonization of new areas

In species reproducing both sexually and asexually clones are often more common in recently established populations. Earlier studies have suggested that this pattern arises due to natural selection favouring generally or locally successful genotypes in new environments. Alternatively, as we show here, this pattern may result from neutral processes during species’ range expansions. We model a dioecious species expanding into a new area in which all individuals are capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction, and all individuals have equal survival rates and dispersal distances. Even under conditions that favour sexual recruitment in the long run, colonization starts with an asexual wave. After colonization is completed, a sexual wave erodes clonal dominance. If individuals reproduce more than one season, and with only local dispersal, a few large clones typically dominate for thousands of reproductive seasons. Adding occasional long‐distance dispersal, more dominant clones emerge, but they persist for a shorter period of time. The general mechanism involved is simple: edge effects at the expansion front favour asexual (uniparental) recruitment where potential mates are rare. Specifically, our model shows that neutral processes (with respect to genotype fitness) during the population expansion, such as random dispersal and demographic stochasticity, produce genotype patterns that differ from the patterns arising in a selection model. The comparison with empirical data from a post‐glacially established seaweed species (Fucus radicans) shows that in this case, a neutral mechanism is strongly supported.     

Morphological determinants of signal carrier frequency in katydids (Orthoptera): a comparative analysis using biophysical evidence of wing vibration

Male katydids produce mating calls by stridulation using specialized structures on the forewings. The right wing (RW) bears a scraper connected to a drum‐like cell known as the mirror and a left wing (LW) that overlaps the RW and bears a serrated vein on the ventral side, the stridulatory file. Sound is generated with the scraper sweeping across the file, producing vibrations that are amplified by the mirror. Using this sound generator, katydids exploit a range of song carrier frequencies (CF) unsurpassed by any other insect group, with species singing as low as 600 Hz and others as high as 150 kHz. Sound generator size has been shown to scale negatively with CF, but such observations derive from studies based on few species, without phylogenetic control, and/or using only the RW mirror length. We carried out a phylogenetic comparative analysis involving 94 species of katydids to study the relationship between LW and RW components of the sound generator and the CF of the male's mating call, while taking into account body size and phylogenetic relationships. The results showed that CF negatively scaled with all morphological measures, but was most strongly related to components of the sound generation system (file, LW and RW mirrors). Interestingly, the LW mirror (reduced and nonfunctional) predicted CF more accurately than the RW mirror, and body size is not a reliable CF predictor. Mathematical models were verified on known species for predicting CF in species for which sound is unknown (e.g. fossils or museum specimens).     

Forest history and the development of old‐growth characteristics in fragmented boreal forests

Questions: Can small and isolated high‐conservation value forests (e.g. designated woodland key habitats) maintain old‐growth forest characteristics and functionality in fragmented landscapes? To what extent have past disturbances (natural and anthropogenic) influenced the development of old‐growth characteristics of these forests? How long does it take for selectively cut stands to attain conditions resembling old‐growth forests? Location: Southern boreal zone of central Sweden. Methods: We linked multiple lines of evidence from historical records, biological archives, and analyses of current forest structure to reconstruct the forest history of a boreal landscape, with special emphasis on six remaining core localities of high‐conservation value forest stands. Results: Our reconstructions revealed that several of these stands experienced wildfires up to the 1890s; all had been selectively harvested in the late 1800s; and all underwent substantial structural and compositional reorganization over the following 100‐150 years. This time interval was sufficient to recover considerable amounts of standing and downed dead wood (mean 60.3 m³ ha^?1), a range of tree ages and sizes (mean basal area 32.6 m² ha^?1), and dominance of shade‐tolerant spruce. It was insufficient to obtain clearly uneven tree age structures and large (>45 cm diameter) living and dead trees. Thus, these forests contain some, but not all, important compositional and structural attributes of old‐growth forests, their abundance being dependent on the timing and magnitude of past natural and anthropogenic disturbances. Our landscape‐level analysis showed marked compositional and structural differences between the historical forest landscape and the present landscape, with the latter having a greater proportion of young forests, introduction of non‐native species, and lack of large trees and dead wood. Conclusions: The remnant high‐conservation value stands were not true representatives of the pre‐industrial forests, but represent the last vestige of forests that have regenerated naturally and maintained a continuous tree cover. These traits, coupled with their capacity for old‐growth recovery, make them valuable focal areas for conservation.     

Hitchhiking of Cu/Zn Superoxide Dismutase to Peroxisomes – Evidence for a Natural Piggyback Import Mechanism in Mammals

Most newly synthesized peroxisomal proteins are imported in a receptor-mediated fashion, depending on the interaction of a peroxisomal targeting signal (PTS) with its cognate targeting receptor Pex5 or Pex7 located in the cytoplasm. Apart from this classic mechanism, heterologous protein complexes that have been proposed more than a decade ago are also to be imported into peroxisomes. However, it remains still unclear if this so-called piggyback import is of physiological relevance in mammals. Here, we show that Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1), an enzyme without an endogenous PTS, is targeted to peroxisomes using its physiological interaction partner 'copper chaperone of SOD1' (CCS) as a shuttle. Both proteins have been identified as peroxisomal constituents by 2D-liquid chromatography mass spectrometry of isolated rat liver peroxisomes. Yet, while a major fraction of CCS was imported into peroxisomes in a PTS1-dependent fashion in CHO cells, overexpressed SOD1 remained in the cytoplasm. However, increasing the concentrations of both CCS and SOD1 led to an enrichment of SOD1 in peroxisomes. In contrast, CCS-mediated SOD1 import into peroxisomes was abolished by deletion of the SOD domain of CCS, which is required for heterodimer formation. SOD1/CCS co-import is the first demonstration of a physiologically relevant piggyback import into mammalian peroxisomes.     

Migratory timing, marine survival and growth of anadromous brown trout Salmo trutta in the River Imsa, Norway

The aim of the paper was to study sea migration, growth and survival of brown trout Salmo trutta of the River Imsa, 1976–2005. The migratory S. trutta were individually tagged and fish leaving or entering the river were monitored daily in traps located near the river mouth. The mean annual duration of the sea sojourn was 6–9 months for first-time migrants moving to sea between January and June. It was 8–18 months for those migrating to sea between July and December. Veteran migrants stayed 12 months or less at sea and most returned to the river in August. Early ascending fish stayed the longest in fresh water because most returned to sea in April to May. The day number of 50% cumulative smolt descent correlated negatively with mean water temperature in February to March and the February North Atlantic Oscillation index (NAOI). Mean annual sea growth during the first 2 years after smolting was higher for S. trutta spending the winter at sea than those wintering in the River Imsa. First year's sea growth was lower for S. trutta descending in spring than autumn. For first-time migrants, it correlated negatively with the February NAOI of the smolt year. Sea survival was higher for spring than autumn descending first-time migratory S. trutta with a maximum in May (14·9%). Number of anadromous S. trutta returning to the river increased linearly with the size of the cohort moving to sea, with no evidence of density-dependent sea mortality. Sea survival of S. trutta smolts moving to sea between January and June correlated positively both with the annual number of Atlantic Salmo salar smolts, the specific growth rate at sea, and time of seaward migration in spring. This is the first study indicating how environmental factors at the time of seaward migration influence the sea survival of S. trutta .